Global Issues Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Global Issues - Assignment Example ent is not solely responsible for all the decisions made regarding foreign policies even though he is the primary architect and his participation is very important. The following groups also help in shaping the foreign policies; the senate, congress, intelligence agencies, departments of the cabinet, and the military (Ramachandran, Sita.  40). President Obama’s approach employs targeted force in a way that is of a responsible fashion. He is caring, respectful, confident and respectful. His leadership style is one that is mindful in decision making. He was a senator before his election to presidency. He was give birth in 1961 .He is a Harvard Law School and Columbia university graduate. He was a community organizer prior to graduating. Worked as for civil rights and taught constitution law. Former president George Bush used pragmatic and conservative approach in foreign policies. He was hard working, unpretentious, practical, ambitious, determined and forceful. He was born in 1946, a politician and a business

Literature as Knowledge for Living Essay Example for Free

Literature as Knowledge for Living Essay According to Vera M. Kutzinski in his introduction, Ottmar Ette was sent to the east of Germany after the reunification of Germany to strengthen academic institutions. There, universities were going to receive the so-called â€Å"Initiative for Excellence†, which would make German universities more competitive. But, when it came to application, a little percentage of humanities institutions were selected, because the focus was actually on science and technology. This fact was what fueled Ette to take a turn on his work and started to work on not trying to convince why literary studies were better or worth more attention or research, but to make skeptical see why society cannot do without literary studies. Ette’s official work on this matter is titled Lendemains, where he focuses on literary studies as something that society needs to survive and the relations established between human beings in literary terms. Below is presented a short review on his evaluation on this matter. Ette argues that literature and language do not seem to deal with language about life any longer. Instead, scientific and technological academic fields have taken over. So what has to be done for the humanities to deal with life again would be, according to him, reorientating the idea of life, which should be based on making society see how the humanities can improve how human beings live with one another, and this should be done together with the biosciences, creating an easily understandable language which allowed scientific and literary discourses to work together as equals. Ette also discusses how biotechnology and natural-scientific fields of study have become the â€Å"sciences of life† because it has been socially accepted, since their subjects of study have to do with life. And also how literary scholars do not pay attention to the humanities losing ground on this respect. So, according to the author, the concept of life should be changed from a bio-chemical, biophysical, and biotechnological and medical, to a cultural-literature-oriented one, as other scholars also maintained before (Leo Spitzer and his ideal of literature being the science that seeks to comprehend the human being to the extent to which he expresses himself in words and linguistic creations). Then, the author introduces the concept knowledge for living as the kind of knowledge inherent to literature, this is, literature having knowledge about or of life. But then, it comes the following question: how to acquire this knowledge for living? This could be answered (according also to Wolfgang Iser’s work) by the act of reading, this is: reading fictional literary pieces and having experiences through it that make the reader gain a kind of knowledge that he/she would not experience in their own life otherwise. This introduces the concepts of intratextuallity (the knowledge of living that characters of novels possess) and extratextuallity (the ways of acquiring certain cultural and sociohistorical knowledge for living), both of which influence the reader culturally, in their behavior, their life, etc. depending on what they read. These two dimensions of the knowledge for living constitute, at the same time, the knowledge for living together, which is acquired by the readers through literature as the conditions for people to live together which have been shaped all throughout history. In these terms, the author mentions Roland Basthers’ work Comment vivre ensemble, and how literary analysis could connect literature and life. This is, for example, how to live (in the novel), how certain people have lived (in biography), etc. In addition, these knowledges should take into account different contexts and cultures, gender and social differences, in order to be universal and valid. The conclusion of the author is that the humanities first need to realize the potential that they possess concerning knowledge for living which, in conjunction with the natural and social sciences, would give new perspectives for the exploration of art and literature as knowledge for living.

The Function Of Subtitle

The Function Of Subtitle According to Mitterer H, McQueen JM, their book named Foreign Subtitle Help but Native Language Subtitle Harm Foreign Speech Perception. Understanding the foreign speech is not easy in common, especially because of unusual mapping between sounds and words. It is known that audiences in their native language can use lexical knowledge (about now words ought to sound) to learn how to pronouns an unusual foreign word in the movie. Subtitles are normally prepared in a movie, to provide lexical information, support perceptual learning about foreign speech for those audiences. According to Cai Q, Brysbaert M, his book SUBTLEX-CH: Chinese Word and Character. Subtitles are also makes video more accessible for people with hearing disabilities or deaf. It is hard to listen when the unfamiliar regional accent is in unfamiliar foreign languages. The unusual foreign vowels and consonants may mismatch more with native sound categories, seriously will fail to match any native category. This situation arises, for example, when we watch a film in a non-native language, a Malaysian listener, fluent in English and Chinese, watching a Thailand movie. He or she may have considerable difficulty understanding the language used in the movie. To adopt all those films or movie into target language culture, filmmakers use dubbing, voice-over and subtitles to make the movie more acceptable to those foreign countries. Besides, subtitles can translate speech, signs, letters and show sounds to aid the deaf and hard of hearing to understand more and follow the plot of the film. According to encyclopedia, it said that subtitle is used to interpret previously unheard words in a movie for those audiences. The ability to encode rules and to detect rule-violating events outside the focus of attention is vital for adaptive behavior. Our brain recordings reveal that violations of abstract auditory rules are processed even when the sounds are absent. When subjects performed a task related to the sounds but not to the rule, rule violations impaired task related to the sounds but not to the rule, rule violations impaired task performance and activated a network involving supratemporal, parietal and frontal areas although none of the subjects acquired explicit knowledge of the rule or became aware of rule violations. The finding that this happens even when subjects do not present the sounds supports the hypothesis that abstract rule encoding occurs unintentionally. The temporal and structural characteristics of the relevant brain response (MMN) were virtually identical in all conditions, that is, when subjects were ignoring the sounds, when they attended the sounds but rules were task-irrelevant, and when they attended the sounds and rules were task-relevant.( Schrà ¶ger E, Bendixen A, Trujillo-Barreto NJ, Roeber U ,2007) According to the Wikipedia, It announces that subtitles displayed at the bottom of a movie or television screen that translate or transcribes the dialogue or narrative in the movie. It is also giving additional information about its content like monolog, mind-thinking and emotion. Those subtitles can be in different categories: narrative, forced, content, titles only, bonus, localized and extended/expanded. While distributing content, subtitles can appear in one of 3 types: Hard (also known as hard-subtitles or open subtitles), Prerendered (also known as closed subtitles are separate video frames that are overlaid on the original video stream while playing), Soft (also known as soft-subtitles or closed subtitles). The positive effects of subtitles According to Mitterer H and McQueen JM, their book Foreign Subtitle Help but Native Language Subtitle Harm Foreign Speech Perception, what the group found the greatest advantage of subtitles is the fact that it preserves the original audio track. Thanks to the subtitles, the actors speak with their original voice, and the ambience sounds are not disrupted by voice-over or inserted dubbing recordings. When the audiences read the subtitles, they will more understand about the action, emotion and the expression by the actors in the movie. Thus, the audiences will become more interest and can be followed the part on the movie. The subtitles in a movie also focus on the speech act of characters. Audience can follow the movie by reading the subtitles at the bottom of the screen. It serve as an aid not only for the deaf and hard of hearing, but also for people who learn the foreign languages or who need visual aid aside form audio input for study. It is to ensure the studying foreign langua ge process is effective. So the effects are more important than lexical elements. Subtitles in the language of the film indicate which words are being spoken, and so can boost speech learning about foreign speech sounds and pronouns. The listeners can learn to interpret an ambiguous phoneme on the basis of disambiguating lexical contexts. That is why the movie always has prepared the foreign subtitles for the audiences. According to Cai Q, Brysbaert M, the book was named SUBTLEX-CH: Chinese Word and Character. Subtitles given the prior work on lexical retuning within the native language, and the suggestion that adaptation to foreign-accented speech is in part lexically driven, may be lexical retuning also in second-language listening. That is, listeners may be able to retune speech-sound categories based on their knowledge about how foreign words ought to sound or pronouns. Within subtitles, those listeners can learn about unfamiliar regional accents in a foreign language in the movie by reading subtitles prepared. It is a mechanism of lexically-guided perceptual learning. English subtitles should give provided in the most of the films, because it is international language. It can provide the extra information about the words being spoken by a character. According to encyclopedia.com, subtitles are a very useful ways of communicating what is being said on the movie to deaf people. Subtitles are also used for many other reasons than this, and deaf people often prefer not to have them or to use another method because of the drawback of subtitling. In addition, foreign movie are often subtitled to allow the people who do not know the language to follow the action. As a good example, a lot of Thailand movie are subtitled with English for the audiences to make sure the movie acceptable by others in foreign countries like Malaysia. According to the United Kingdom News and magazine, there wrote some comment about the subtitles. Subtitles can provide an additional source of information about the words that being spoken, and hence the sounds being heard, and so ought to reinforce lexically-guided learning. Our database is the first to include information about the contextual diversity of the words and to provide good frequency estimates for multi-character words and the different syntactic roles in which the words are used. The word frequencies are freely available for research purposes. Subtitles are a good estimate of daily language exposure and capture much of the variance in words processing efficiency. According to the Wikipedia, it announces that subtitle is a blessing and it really helps the people to understand the plot of the movie. It is also not a problem for people who watching movie in an overload background music and ambient noise environment. It is a good reason why the parents can take care their child when watching a movie. If you do not understand a word that have been spoken by the actor, you may look at the subtitle, it helps hearing impaired people understand a movie. People will more understand what the characters are saying and get a better idea of what is happening. The negative effects of subtitles Subtitles are limited both in time and space. An average subtitle consists of one or two lines of text, maximum 35 characters each. This limitation combined with the fact that on subtitle is at most displayed for four seconds gives us hard time to cover long utterances in dialogs.(Richard Curtis, 2003) According to United Kingdom News and magazine, another main disadvantage is the subtitles are mainly aiming at literate people with reading skills developed to a high extent. It is required from audience to read quick enough and do not only concentrate on the subtitles, but also the image above or just behind the subtitles, and often requires from them to use both skills simultaneously. Is that impossible concentrates on both in a whole movie? Of course, for non-deaf people they can still hear the emotion in an actors voice even if it is in a different or foreign language but it is not easy to follow so many things. Other countries prefer to dub program and film-where an actor speaking the language of the country where it is to be shown is recorded over the original language. But this is costly and time consuming and only worth the while of the crew if it is to be shown to a large number of people. But again, similar arguments prevail with regards to nuances being lost-especially as the subtitles tend to be an exact translation rather than taking idiom into account, and emotions being lost. Leo Freedman has a comment about the problem. I saw a superb subtitle mistake a couple of month agoà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦there was a report on the news about a new employment policy that would benefit millions of unemployed and impoverished Indian citizens à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the subtitle read If this policy works, it may be set to achieve even more that my hammock man Ghandi! That kept me amused for weeks! Or maybe Muhatma had a hammock company I am unaware of? According to the Wikipedia, it said that translation of subtitling is sometimes very different from the translation of written text. Usually, the editor will watch the picture and listen to the audio sentence by sentence when a film or a movie is subtitled. The editor may or may not have access to a written transcript of the dialog. Especially in commercial subtitles, the editor often interprets what is meant, rather than translating how it is said, meaning being more important than form. The audience does not always appreciate this, and it can be frustrating to those who know some of the spoken language, because spoken language may contain verbal padding or culturally implied meaning, in confusing words, if not adapted in the written subtitles. The editor does this when the dialog must be condensed in order to achieve an acceptable reading speed, it purpose being more important than form. The result suggested that foreign subtitles are very helpful but that native-language subtitles provide no benefit or less benefit. Only one study focused on phonological processing; negligible benefits for non-native subtitles were found. Clear predictions can nevertheless still be made about the effects of subtitle language on speech learning. If lexically-guided retuning operates in second-language listening, and is open to any influence from subtitles, then the influence should depend on the language of the subtitles. According to encyclopedia.com, the native subtitles may be easier for observes to read, but providing misleading or misunderstand information about the phonological forms being spoken. If the audiences are more concentrated in reading the subtitles than is watching the movie, he or she will not learn the new language. The audience can hear the original sound, voice of the movie and see the correct timing of expressions on the actors faces as they speak their lines? This is hard to finish reading the subtitles at the bottom of a movie because it is past fast and not easy to digest. Lowering sight towards the bottom of the movie while reading the subtitles can become tiresome and/or distract from appreciating details, facial expressions and the emotion of those actors. The audience might be having such a good time reading the subtitle that is could prevent from watching the actual movie, it could block things in the movie and make audiences hard to focus on the action.

Reaction to Beloved :: essays research papers

Reaction To Beloved   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The movie Beloved was a tale of a woman who is so devastated by the evil of slavery. Therefore she is willing to kill her toddler daughter rather than allow her to be taken back into the horror. This murderous act proves itself to be a choice, which only further enslaves her soul as her daughter’s ghost haunts her life. The movie was set in the 1800’s. Sethe is a pregnant slave on a Kentucky plantation named Sweet Home. She was under control by a violent slave master. To me there is no reason or excuse for this kind of evil. The enslavement and brutal treatment of our fellow human beings is a spiritual scar.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Sethe gives birth to Beloved and is reunited with her children in Ohio. The happiness of this reunion is turn into a tragic event as she sees her former master riding up to the house with the local sheriff. Sethe knows that he is coming back to take her children back into slavery, she runs into the shed, cuts the throat of her two year old daughter, Beloved, and hits her sons’ heads with a shovel. Her sons didn’t die but beloved did. Soon after the tragic event the spirit of Beloved haunts Sethe’s house. The scene of seeing Sethe kill Beloved is very disturbing to witness. The ghostly tantrum of Beloved comes back over and over again to disrupt Sethe’s home. Her two sons become very scared by the haunts of Beloved. Sethe’s younger daughter, Denver becomes calm with her mother and the ghost, and she never leaves the house and yard. Sethe also becomes ok with the ghost presence in the house. She keeps denying that she did anything wrong by killing Beloved. So she feels that she doesn’t need any help.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This is often the way evil take over our lives. Rather than having the courage to face the evil we suffer , as Sethe did she affected her own children with this violence. Sethe became in denial with her responsibility. She accepted the pain of her guilt and shame with a lie towards her dignity. She felt everything was right and didn’t want to ask for forgiveness and victory over the evil. But soon a physical form of Beloved comes to Sethe’s house. The girl who act as Beloved is real and demanding like a spoiled child.

Comparison between five process models of software engineering Essay

IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 7, Issue 5, September 2010 ISSN (Online): 1694-0814 www.IJCSI.org A Comparison Between Five Models Of Software Engineering Nabil Mohammed Ali Munassar1 and A. Govardhan2 1 Ph.D Student of Computer Science & Engineering Jawahrlal Nehru Technological University Kuktapally, Hyderabad- 500 085, Andhra Pradesh, India 2 Professor of Computer Science & Engineering Principal JNTUH of Engineering College, Jagityal, Karimnagar (Dt), A.P., India Abstract This research deals with a vital and important issue in computer world. It is concerned with the software management processes that examine the area of software development through the  development models, which are known as software development  life cycle. It represents five of the development models namely, waterfall, Iteration, V-shaped, spiral and Extreme programming. These models have advantages and disadvantages as well. Therefore, the main objective of this research is to represent different models of software development and make a  comparison between them to show the features and defects of each model. Keywords: Software Management Processes, Software  Development, Development Models, Software Development Life  Cycle, Comparison between five models of Software Engineering. increased recently which results in the difficulty of  enumerating such companies. During the previous four  decades, software has been developed from a tool used for  analyzing information or solving a problem to a product in  itself. However, the early programming stages have  created a number of problems turning software an  obstacle to software development particularly those  relying on computers. Software consists of documents and  programs that contain a collection that has been  established to be a part of software engineering  procedures. Moreover, the aim of software engineering is  to create a suitable work that construct programs of high  quality. 1. Introduction Computer Science No one can deny the importance of computer in our life,  especially during the present time. In fact, computer has  become indispensible in today’s life as it is used in many  fields of life such as industry, medicine, commerce,  education and even agriculture. It has become an  important element in the industry and technology of  advanced as well as developing countries. Now a days,  organizations become more dependent on computer in  their works as a result of computer technology. Computer  is considered a time- saving device and its progress helps  in executing complex, long, repeated processes in a very  short time with a high speed. In addition to using  computer for work, people use it for fun and  entertainment. Noticeably, the number of companies thatproduce software programs for the purpose of facilitating  works of offices, administrations, banks, etc, has Theories Computer Function Client Problems The Software engineering Tools and techniques to solve problems Fig. 1 Explanation of software engineering conception. IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 7, Issue 5, September 2010 ISSN (Online): 1694-0814 www.IJCSI.org 95 2. Software Process Models concern. A software process model is an abstract representation of a process. It presents a description of a process from some particular perspective as: The pure waterfall lifecycle consists of several nonoverlapping stages, as shown in the following figure. The model begins with establishing system requirements and  software requirements and continues with architectural  design, detailed design, coding, testing, and maintenance. The waterfall model serves as a baseline for many other  lifecycle models. 1. 2. 3. 4. Specification. Design. Validation. Evolution. General Software Process Models are 1. Waterfall model: Separate and distinct phases of specification and development. 2. Prototype model. 3. Rapid application development model (RAD). 4. Evolutionary development: Specification, development and validation are interleaved. 5. Incremental model. 6. Iterative model. 7. Spiral model. 8. Component-based software engineering : The system is assembled from existing components. System Requirements Software Requirements Architectural Design Detailed Design Coding There are many variants of these models e.g. formal development where a waterfall-like process is used, but the specification is formal that is refined through several stages to an implementable design[1]. Testing Maintenance Fig. 2 Waterfall Model[4]. 3. Five Models A Programming process model is an abstract representation to describe the process from a particular perspective. There are numbers of general models for software processes, like: Waterfall model, Evolutionary development, Formal systems development and Reusebased development, etc. This research will view the following five models : 1. Waterfall model. 2. Iteration model. 3. V-shaped model. 4. Spiral model. 5. Extreme model. These models are chosen because their features correspond to most software development programs. Requirements Definition System and Software Design Implementation and Unit Testing Integration and System Testing 3.1 The Waterfall Model The waterfall model is the classical model of software  engineering. This model is one of the oldest models and is  widely used in government projects and in many major  companies. As this model emphasizes planning in early  stages, it ensures design flaws before they develop. In  addition, its intensive document and planning make it  work well for projects in which quality control is a major Operation and Maintenance Fig. 3 Waterfall model[2]. The following list details the steps for using the waterfall IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 7, Issue 5, September 2010 ISSN (Online): 1694-0814 www.IJCSI.org model: 1 System requirements: Establishes the components  for building the system, including the hardware  requirements, software tools, and other necessary  components. Examples include decisions on  hardware, such as plug-in boards (number of  channels, acquisition speed, and so on), and decisions  on external pieces of software, such as databases or  libraries. 2 3 Software requirements: Establishes the expectations  for software functionality and identifies which system  requirements the software affects. Requirements  analysis includes determining interaction needed with  other applications and databases, performance  requirements, user interface requirements, and so on. Architectural design: Determines the software  framework of a system to meet the specific  requirements. This design defines the major  components and the interaction of those components,  but it does not define the structure of each  component. The external interfaces and tools used in  the project can be determined by the designer. 4 Detailed design: Examines the software components  defined in the architectural design stage and produces  a specification for how each component is  implemented. 5 Coding: Implements specification. 6 7 the detailed starting coding. There is no overlap between stages. In  real-world development, however, one can discover issues  during the design or coding stages that point out errors or gaps in the requirements. The waterfall method does not prohibit returning to an  earlier phase, for example, returning from the design phase  to the requirements phase. However, this involves costly  rework. Each completed phase requires formal review and  extensive documentation development. Thus, oversights  made in the requirements phase are expensive to correct  later. Because the actual development comes late in the process,  one does not see results for a long time. This delay can be  disconcerting to management and customers. Many people  also think that the amount of documentation is excessive  and inflexible. Although the waterfall model has  instructive because it emphasizes  project development. Even if one  model, he must consider each of  relationship to his own project [4]. ï‚ · 1. 2. 3. design Testing: Determines whether the software meets the  specified requirements and finds any errors present in  the code. Maintenance: Addresses problems and enhancement  requests after the software releases. In some organizations, a change control board maintains  the quality of the product by reviewing each change made  in the maintenance stage. Consider applying the full  waterfall development cycle model when correcting  problems or implementing these enhancement requests. In each stage, documents that explain the objectives and  describe the requirements for that phase are created. At the end of each stage, a review to determine whether the  project can proceed to the next stage is held. Your  prototyping can also be incorporated into any stage from  the architectural design and after. Many people believe that this model cannot be applied to  all situations. For example, with the pure waterfall model,  the requirements must be stated before beginning the  design, and the complete design must be stated before 96 4. 5. 6. ï‚ · 1. 2. 4. 5. 6. 7. ï‚ · its weaknesses, it is  important stages of  does not apply this  these stages and its Advantages : Easy to understand and implement. Widely used and known (in theory!). Reinforces good habits: define-before- design, design-before-code. Identifies deliverables and milestones. Document driven, URD, SRD, †¦ etc. Published documentation standards, e.g. PSS-05. Works well on mature products and weak teams. Disadvantages : Idealized, doesn’t match reality well. Doesn’t reflect iterative nature of exploratory development. 3. Unrealistic to expect accurate requirements so early in project. Software is delivered late in project, delays discovery of serious errors. Difficult to integrate risk management. Difficult and expensive to make changes to documents, †swimming upstream†. Significant administrative overhead, costly for small teams and projects [6]. Pure Waterfall This is the classical system development model. It consists of discontinuous phases: 1. 2. 3. Concept. Requirements. Architectural design. IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 7, Issue 5, September 2010 ISSN (Online): 1694-0814 www.IJCSI.org 4. 5. 6. Detailed design. Coding and development. Testing and implementation. Table 1: Strengths & Weaknesses of Pure Waterfall Strengths ï‚ · ï‚ · Minimizes planning  overhead since it can be done up front.  Structure minimizes  wasted effort, so it  works well for  technically weak or  inexperienced staff. Risk reduction spirals can be added to the top of the  waterfall to reduce risks prior to the waterfall phases. The waterfall can be further modified using options such as  prototyping, JADs or CRC sessions or other methods of  requirements gathering done in overlapping phases [5]. Weaknesses 3.2 Iterative Development ï‚ · Inflexible ï‚ · Only the final phase  produces a nondocumentation  deliverable. ï‚ · Backing up to address mistakes is difficult. The problems with the Waterfall Model created a demand  for a new method of developing systems which could  provide faster results, require less up-front information,  and offer greater flexibility. With Iterative Development,  the project is divided into small parts. This allows the  development team to demonstrate results earlier on in the  process and obtain valuable feedback from system users. Often, each iteration is actually a mini-Waterfall process  with the feedback from one phase providing vital  information for the design of the next phase. In a variation of this model, the software products, which are produced  at the end of each step (or series of steps), can go into  production immediately as incremental releases. ï‚ · Pure Waterfall Summary The pure waterfall model performs well for products with  clearly understood requirements or when working with  well understood technical tools, architectures and  infrastructures. Its weaknesses frequently make it  inadvisable when rapid development is needed. In those  cases, modified models may be more effective. ï‚ · 97 Modified Waterfall The modified waterfall uses the same phases as the pure  waterfall, but is not based on a discontinuous basis. This  enables the phases to overlap when needed. The pure  waterfall can also split into subprojects at an appropriate  phase (such as after the architectural design or detailed design). Table 2: Strengths & Weaknesses of Modified Waterfall Strengths ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · More flexible than the  pure waterfall model. If there is personnel  continuity between the  phases, documentation  can be substantially reduced.  Implementation of easy  areas does not need to  wait for the hard ones. Weaknesses ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · Modified Waterfall Summary Milestones are more  ambiguous than the  pure waterfall. Activities performed  in parallel are subject  to miscommunication  and mistaken  assumptions. Unforeseen  interdependencies can  create problems. Fig. 4 Iterative Development. 3.3 V-Shaped Model Just like the waterfall model, the V-Shaped life cycle is a  sequential path of execution of processes. Each phase  must be completed before the next phase begins. Testing  is emphasized in this model more than the waterfall  model. The testing procedures are developed early in the  life cycle before any coding is done, during each of the  phases preceding implementation. Requirements begin the  life cycle model just like the waterfall model. Before IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 7, Issue 5, September 2010 ISSN (Online): 1694-0814 www.IJCSI.org development is started, a system test plan is created. The test plan focuses on meeting the functionality specified in requirements gathering. 98 Requirements The high-level design phase focuses on system  architecture and design. An integration test plan is created in this phase in order to test the pieces of the software  systems ability to work together. However, the low-level  design phase lies where the actual software components  are designed, and unit tests are created in this phase as  well. System Test Planning High Level Design Low Level Design The implementation phase is, again, where all coding  takes place. Once coding is complete, the path of  execution continues up the right side of the V where the  test plans developed earlier are now put to use. ï‚ · Simple and easy to use. Each phase has specific deliverables. Higher chance of success over the waterfall model  due to the early development of test plans during the  life cycle. Works well for small projects where requirements are  easily understood. Unit Test Planning Integration Testing Unit Testing Implementation Advantages 1. 2. 3. Integration Test Planning System Testing 4. Fig. 6 V-Shaped Life Cycle Model[7]. 3.4 Spiral Model The spiral model is similar to the incremental model, with  more emphases placed on risk analysis. The spiral model  has four phases: Planning, Risk Analysis, Engineering and  Evaluation. A software project repeatedly passes through  these phases in iterations (called Spirals in this  model). The baseline spiral, starting in the planning  phase, requirements are gathered and risk is  assessed. Each subsequent spiral builds on the baseline  spiral. Requirements are gathered during the planning  phase. In the risk analysis phase, a process is undertaken  to identify risk and alternate solutions. A prototype is  produced at the end of the risk analysis phase. Software is  produced in the engineering phase, along with testing at  the end of the phase. The evaluation phase allows the  customer to evaluate the output of the project to date  before the project continues to the next spiral. In the spiral model, the angular component represents  progress, and the radius of the spiral represents cost. Fig. 5 V-Model [3] ï‚ · Disadvantages 1. 2. Very rigid like the waterfall model. Little flexibility and adjusting scope is difficult and  expensive.  Software is developed during the implementation phase,  so no early prototypes of the software are produced. This Model does not provide a clear path for problems  found during testing phases [7]. 3. 4. ï‚ · 1. 2. 3. Advantages High amount of risk analysis. Good for large and mission-critical projects. Software is produced early in the software life cycle. ï‚ · 1. 2. 3. Disadvantages Can be a costly model to use. Risk analysis requires highly specific expertise. Project’s success is highly dependent on the risk  analysis phase. Doesn’t work well for smaller projects [7]. 4. IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 7, Issue 5, September 2010 ISSN (Online): 1694-0814 www.IJCSI.org ï‚ · 1. Spiral model sectors Objective setting :Specific objectives for the phase are identified. 2. Risk assessment and reduction: Risks are assessed and activities are put in place to reduce the key risks. 3. Development and validation: A development model for the system is chosen which can be any of the general models. 4. Planning: The project is reviewed and the next phase of the spiral is planned [1]. 99 under which the system would produce win-lose or loselose outcomes for some stakeholders. 3. Identify and Evaluate Alternatives: Solicit  suggestions from stakeholders, evaluate them with respect  to stakeholders’ win conditions, synthesize and negotiate  candidate win-win alternatives, analyze, assess, resolve  win-lose or lose-lose risks, record commitments and areas  to be left flexible in the project’s design record and life  cycle plans. 4. Cycle through the Spiral: Elaborate the win conditions  evaluate and screen alternatives, resolve risks, accumulate  appropriate commitments, and develop and execute  downstream plans [8]. 3.5 Extreme Programming An approach to development, based on the development  and delivery of very small increments of functionality. It  relies on constant code improvement, user involvement in  the development team and pair wise programming . It can  be difficult to keep the interest of customers who are  involved in the process. Team members may be unsuited  to the intense involvement that characterizes agile  methods. Prioritizing changes can be difficult where there  are multiple stakeholders. Maintaining simplicity requires  extra work. Contracts may be a problem as with other  approaches to iterative development. Fig. 7 Spiral Model of the Software Process[1]. ï‚ · WinWin Spiral Model The original spiral model [Boehm 88] began each cycle of  the spiral by performing the next level of elaboration of  the prospective system’s objectives, constraints and  alternatives. A primary difficulty in applying the spiral  model has been the lack of explicit process guidance in  determining these objectives, constraints, and alternatives. The Win-Win Spiral Model [Boehm 94] uses the theory  W (win-win) approach [Boehm 89b] to converge on a  system’s next-level objectives, constraints, and  alternatives. This Theory W approach involves identifying  the system’s stakeholders and their win conditions, and  using negotiation processes to determine a mutually  satisfactory set of objectives, constraints, and alternatives for the stakeholders. In particular, as illustrated in the  figure, the nine-step Theory W process translates into the  following spiral model extensions: 1. Determine Objectives: Identify the system life-cycle  stakeholders and their win conditions and establish initial  system boundaries and external interfaces. 2. Determine Constraints: Determine the conditions Fig. 8 The XP Release Cycle ï‚ · Extreme Programming Practices Incremental planning: Requirements are recorded on Story Cards and the Stories to be included in a release are determined by the time available and their relative priority. The developers break these stories into development â€Å"Tasks†. Small Releases: The minimal useful set of functionality that provides business value is developed first. Releases of the system are frequent and incrementally add functionality to the first release. IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 7, Issue 5, September 2010 ISSN (Online): 1694-0814 www.IJCSI.org Simple Design: Enough design is carried out to meet the  current requirements and no more. Test first development: An automated unit test  framework is used to write tests for a new piece of  functionality before functionality itself is implemented.  Refactoring: All developers are expected to re-factor the  code continuously as soon as possible code improvements  are found. This keeps the code simple and maintainable.  Pair Programming: Developers work in pairs, checking  each other’s work and providing support to do a good job.  Collective Ownership: The pairs of developers work on  all areas of the system, so that no islands of expertise  develop and all the developers own all the code. Anyone  can change anything. Continuous Integration: As soon as work on a task is  complete, it is integrated into the whole system. After any  such integration, all the unit tests in the system must pass. Sustainable pace: Large amounts of over-time are not  considered acceptable as the net effect is often to reduce  code quality and medium term productivity.  On-site Customer: A representative of the end-user of the  system (the Customer) should be available full time for the  use of the XP team. In an extreme programming process,  the customer is a member of the development team and is  responsible for bringing system requirements to the team  for implementation. ï‚ · 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. XP and agile principles Incremental development is supported through small,  frequent system releases. Customer involvement means full-time customer  engagement with the team. People not process through pair programming,  collective ownership and a process that avoids long working hours. Change supported through regular system releases.  Maintaining simplicity through constant refactoring of  code [1]. ï‚ · 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Advantages Lightweight methods suit small-medium size projects. Produces good team cohesion. Emphasises final product. Iterative. Test based approach to requirements and quality assurance. ï‚ · 1. Disadvantages Difficult to scale up to large projects where documentation is essential. Needs experience and skill if not to degenerate into code-and-fix. Programming pairs is costly. 2. 3. 4. 100 Test case construction is a difficult and specialized skill [6]. 4. Conclusion and Future Work After completing this research , it is concluded that : 1. There are many existing models for developing systems for different sizes of projects and requirements. 2. These models were established between 1970 and 1999. 3. Waterfall model and spiral model are used commonly in developing systems. 4. Each model has advantages and disadvantages for the development of systems , so each model tries to eliminate the disadvantages of the previous model Finally, some topics can be suggested for future works: 1. 2. 3. Suggesting a model to simulate advantages that are found in different models to software process management. Making a comparison between the suggested model and the previous software processes management models. Applying the suggested model to many projects to ensure of its suitability and documentation to explain its mechanical work. REFERENCES [1] Ian Sommerville, â€Å"Software Engineering†, Addison Wesley, 7th edition, 2004. [2] CTG. MFA – 003, â€Å"A Survey of System Development Process Models†, Models for Action Project: Developing Practical Approaches to Electronic Records Management and Preservation, Center for Technology in Government University at Albany / Suny,1998 . [3] Steve Easterbrook, â€Å"Software Lifecycles†, University of Toronto Department of Computer Science, 2001. [4] National Instruments Corporation, â€Å"Lifecycle Models†, 2006 , http://zone.ni.com. [5] JJ Kuhl, â€Å"Project Lifecycle Models: How They Differ and When to Use Them†,2002 www.businessesolutions.com. [6] Karlm, â€Å"Software Lifecycle Models’, KTH,2006 . [7] Rlewallen, â€Å"Software Development Life Cycle Models†, 2005 ,http://codebeter.com. [8] Barry Boehm, â€Å"Spiral Development: Experience, Principles, and Refinements†, edited by Wilfred J. Hansen, 2000 . Nabil Mohammed Ali Munassar was born in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia in 1978. He studied Computer Science at University of Science and Technology, Yemen from 1997 to 2001. In 2001 he IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 7, Issue 5, September 2010 ISSN (Online): 1694-0814 www.IJCSI.org received the Bachelor degree. He studied Master of Information Technology at Arab Academic, Yemen, from 2004 to 2007. Now rd he Ph.D. Student 3 year of CSE at Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University (JNTU), Hyderabad, A. P., India. He is working as Associate Professor in Computer Science & Engineering College in University Of Science and Technology, Yemen. His area of interest include Software Engineering, System Analysis and Design, Databases and Object Oriented Technologies. Dr.A.Govardhan: received Ph.D. degree in Computer Science and Engineering from Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University in 2003, M.Tech. from Jawaharlal Nehru University in 1994 and B.E. from Osmania University in 1992. He is Working as a Principal of Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Jagitial. He has published around 108 papers in various national and international Journals/conferences. His research of interest includes Databases, Data Warehousing & Mining, Information Retrieval, Computer Networks, Image Processing, Software Engineering, Search Engines and Object Oriented Technologies. 101

Asignment Performance Management Essay

Weiss and Hartle (1997) â€Å"A process for establishing a shared understanding about what is to be achieved and how it is to be achieved, and an approach to managing people that increases the probability of achieving success† * In my experience performance management means different things the different people. In the company I currently work for performance management is thought of in the negative as being a process by which managers are able to take employees to task over bad performance and ultimately get rid of them. This may seem archaic and it is the most negative example I have come across in my work life so far, however, even in more forward thinking companies’ employees are often skeptical and suspicious of the performance management process. Conversely I have been fortunate to see performance management at its best. For me performance management is all about taking the core goals of the organisation and ensuring that departmental, team and individuals tasks and behaviors link to and support these goals. In this way employees understand what is expected of them, why the work is important and how it links into the overall performance of the organisation. They are engaged and feel confident in their work knowing that they are contributing to the success of the company. Performance management assists oganisations in motivating and empowering their employees by setting clear goals and rewarding them not only for what they achieve but also the way in which they achieve. In doing this organisations can focus on what is really important to the success of the business. They can recruit and retain the best employees, and motivate and develop by training and challenging the workforce. Performance management allows succession planning so that job roles can be filled with skilled, motivated, experienced employees. Components of Performance Management Performance management is a cyclical process involving a number different components. Goal setting is a key component of the Performance Management process. The organisation’s overall goals should start the chain and depending of the size and structure of the organization these goals. The process should start with the organisational goals which are designed to ensure the performance of the organisation leads to successful business. These goals cascade down to business areas, departments, teams and individuals. For individual employees their job description and the team’s  goals will form the basis of their individual goals. It is important that they understand how their own goals link into those of the organisation, why the work they are doing is important and how it contributes to the overall success of the organisation. There must be agreement on individual goals if they are to be embraced by the individual and they must be SMART if they are to be effective. Specific Measureable Achievable Results Orientated (Relevant) Time bound It is important that individuals are clear on what is expected of them, that they feel the goals can be achieved and that they that they are challenging and interesting. Key to the achievement of goals is regular communication. Communication may be formal or informal but can include updates from the individuals, feedback from colleagues, managers and clients, one to ones or team meetings. This communication is invaluable in employees on track to achieving their goals and making changes when necessary. Performance appraisals are another important component of performance management. These events are often undertaken annually and provide a formal appraisal of the individual’s competence in their role. Individuals and their managers have the opportunity to discuss, provide feedback and evidence of the individual’s achievements (against goals) and, in some organisations, the way in which those achievements were met (behaviours). Some companies also undertake half yearly reviews or appraisals with the view to making sure that that performance stays on track between annual appraisals. This is also an opportunity to review existing goals and set new ones. Performance improvement or development planning is another part of performance management. Areas for improvement or development may be identified at any time during the performance management process but typically come out of appraisal discussions. As with goals it is important that there is agreement on development plans and that activities to develop individuals are varied and effective. If employees are going to achieve their goals and develop their skills, knowledge and delivery within their role they must have access to the appropriate training and coaching. Whether employees require  development because they do not meet their current performance requirements or in order to progress to the next level, training and coaching are also key elements within a comprehensive performance management process. Motivation and performance Management This relationship between motivation and performance management can be complex and individual to each employee. There are numerous motivational theories all of which have elements of authenticity to them. I have looked at two motivational theories, McGregor and Vroom. Douglas McGregor’s theory ‘details two contrasting models of workforce motivation’ ** Theory X suggests that the average person is basically lazy and don’t like work. They prefer to be told what to do and don’t want responsibility. As such there needs to be tight control of the individual and threats of loss or punishment are the best ways to motivate them. Theory Y is the opposite, assuming that most people enjoy work, that they are happy to take responsibility under the right circumstances and that they can be self-motivated to do a good job. This motivation can be enhanced when managers are able to appreciate the employee and develop their trust. Victor Harold Vroom’s theory, to me, has links to the ‘Y Theory’, the theory suggests that factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities drive an individual’s performance. It proposes that employees are motivated by what they expect to receive in return for their effort and what that expected reward means to the employee. This is referred to as ‘Expectancy theory’ and links together in the following way: Expectancy: Does the individual feel the effort they put in will lead to high performance. What is their levels of confidence in what they are capable of doing? Do they have the appropriate resources, knowledge and training to carry out their role? Instrumentality: If the individual achieves a high level of performance is there reward for their efforts and can they be sure they will receive it. Employees must be able to trust that they will. Valence: Is the reward offered/expected one that the individual values. For the reward to motivate it must have importance for the individual, be it financial, recognition, promotion and so on. For me the key to Vroom’s theory and its success in motivating employees is that every individual is different, each has their own needs, wants, expectations and values based on the individuals frame of reference. Management must know and respect the individual and what they want. Reward within Performance management: I have already discussed reward in relation to motivation and how the reward on offer may need to bespoke to the individual in order to be effective. There is, however, a far wider aspect to reward with a performance management process. Reward to attract and to motivate Pay is usually the first thought when talking about reward in employment. It is important that a realistic but attractive salary is offered initially when recruiting new employees. Pay continues to be important for most individuals throughout their employment, however it is not the only way in way employees can be rewarded. Within my current organization pay is only increased annually, across the board, which has little to do with performance except for acknowledging that employees are rewarded for working for the company in line with cost of living rises. Currently there is no performance management process within my organization other than dealing with poor performance in a ‘theory X’ style, employees are serviced with a notice of improvement linked to termination of their contact. Outside of the annual pay increase financial reward is only given if a good employee threatens to leave. Practice is known to all employees via the grapevine and acts to demotivates those who don’t wish to take this approach. I have, however, worked within another organization where annual increases were calculated on performance throughout the year based on a truly robust appraisal system. Engaged and motivated employees were encouraged to collect factual evidence of their achievements and to present and rate this evidence at their appraisal. Ratings were discussed and agreed and then, then to ensure fairness, underwent cross calibration at departmental level. Employees felt they were treated fairly and rewarded not just for their efforts over the year but for their ownership of managing their own performance. Another type of reward for performance, which is being rolled out currently by my employer, is to provide opportunity for high performing  individuals to their knowledge of the business through a shadowing scheme. This has raised employee’s morale as they feel they will be able to perform more effectively and this could, in turn, lead to better opportunities and perhaps promotion. It has also encouraged other individuals to improve their performance in order to be able participate in the scheme. As I have discussed an employee’ perception of the value of reward will vary from one to another. values The need to provide a variety of rewards in line with employee’s expectations and personal preference is supported in the concept of Total Reward schemes. These scheme look at all the rewards and benefits that are or could be provided to employees recognition work/life balance company culture employee development environment, including job design and the physical workspace. *Management and Motivation, Vroom, V.H., Deci, E.L., Penguin 1983 (first published 1970) ** Wikipedia 3 x components of total reward system 1 of which should b non financial Weiss and Hartle (1997)

Definition and Examples of a Lingua Franca

Definition and Examples of a Lingua Franca A lingua franca (pronounced LING-wa FRAN-ka) is a language or mixture of languages used as a medium of communication by people whose native languages are different. It is from the Italian, language Frankish and also known as a trade language, contact language, international language, and global language. The term English as a lingua franca (ELF) refers to the teaching, learning, and use of the English language as a common means of communication for speakers of different native languages. Examples and Observations Where a language is widely used over a relatively large geographical area as a language of wider communication, it is known as a lingua francaa common language but one which is native only to some of its speakers. The term lingua franca itself is an extension of the use of the name of the original Lingua Franca, a Medieval trading pidgin used in the Mediterranean region. (M. Sebba, Contact Languages: Pidgins and Creoles. Palgrave, 1997) English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) The status of English is such that it has been adopted as the worlds lingua franca for communication in Olympic sport, international trade, and air-traffic control. Unlike any other language, past or present, English has spread to all five continents and has become a truly global language. (G. Nelson and B. Aarts, Investigating English Around the World, The Workings of Language, ed. by R. S. Wheeler. Greenwood, 1999)Even though everybody around the world speaks Englishsort ofin their dealings with American media and business, politics, and culture, the English that is spoken is a lingua franca, a Bodysnatched English to be carefully scrutinized as to its meanings when it is used by a foreign culture. (Karin Dovring, English as Lingua Franca: Double Talk in Global Persuasion. Praeger, 1997)But what do we mean by the term English as a lingua franca? The term lingua franca is usually taken to mean any lingual medium of communication between people of different mother tongues, for whom i t is a second language (Samarin, 1987, p. 371). In this definition, then, a lingua franca has no native speakers, and this notion is carried over into definitions of English as a lingua franca, such as in the following example: [ELF] is a contact language between persons who share neither a common native tongue nor a common (national) culture, and for whom English is the chosen foreign language of communication (Firth, 1996, p. 240).Clearly, the role of English as the chosen foreign language of communication in Europe is an extremely important one, and one that is on the increase. . . . It is important to note that this means that both in Europe as well as in the world as a whole, English is now a language that is mainly used by bi- and multilinguals, and that its (often monolingual) native speakers are a minority. (Barbara Seidlhofer, Common Property: English as a Lingua Franca in Europe. International Handbook of English Language Teaching, ed. by Jim Cummins and Chris Davison. Spr inger, 2007) Globish as a Lingua Franca I want to draw a distinction between a language which is spread through nurture, a mother tongue, and a language that is spread through recruitment, which is a lingua franca. A lingua franca is a language that you consciously learn because you need to, because you want to. A mother tongue is a language that you learn because you cant help it. The reason English is spreading around the world at the moment is because of its utility as a lingua franca. Globisha simplified version of English thats used around the worldwill be there as long as it is needed, but since its not being picked up as a mother tongue, its not typically being spoken by people to their children. It is not getting effectively to first base, the most crucial first base for long-term survival of a language. (Nicholas Ostler quoted by Robert McCrum in My Bright Idea: English Is On the Up but One Day Will Die Out. The Observer, October 31, 2010) Cyberspace English Because the cyberspace community, at least at the moment, is overwhelmingly English speaking, it is appropriate to say that English is its unofficial language. . . .The colonial past, imperialistic stealth, and the emergence of other language blocs in cyberspace as it grows will minimize in due time the preeminence of English as the de facto language of cyberspace. . . .[Jukka] Korpela sees another alternative to cyberspace English and a constructed language. He predicts the development of better language machine translation algorithms. Such algorithms will result in efficient and sufficient quality language translators, and there will be no need for a lingua franca. (J. M. Kizza, Ethical and Social Issues in the Information Age. Springer, 2007)